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While social and behavioral effects of violence in the media have been studied extensively, much less is known about how sports affect perceptions of violence. The current study examined neurofunctional differences between fans and non-fans of North American football (a contact sport) while viewing violent imagery.

Participants viewed images of violence in both football and non-football settings while high-resolution functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) data were acquired from their brains. Neurological activation was compared between these violence types and between groups. Fans of football show diminished activation in brain regions involved in pain perception and empathy such as the anterior cingulate cortex, fusiform gyrus, insula, and temporal pole when viewing violence in the context of football compared to more broadly violent images. Non-fans of football showed no such effect for the types of violent imagery and had higher activation levels than fans of football for the specified brain regions.

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These differences show that fans of football may perceive violence differently when it is in the context of football. These fan attitudes have potential policy implications for addressing the issue of concussions in North American football. Participants This study was approved by and carried out in accordance with the recommendations of Auburn University Institutional Review Board. All subjects gave written informed consent in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki. The experiment was conducted at the Auburn University MRI Research Center. Fifteen right-handed, college-educated participants (53% female; 60% Caucasian; ages 22–57, M = 30.7, SD = 10) were recruited from the Auburn, Alabama area. 94% of the participants were currently employed, and all of the participants had at a minimum a bachelor's degree.

Participants were pre-screened to determine their status as a football fan using a “Team Identity Scale” and their ability to take part in an MRI scan. Team identity was measured utilizing a modified version of the seven items found in the Sport Spectator Identification Scale (). The modification of the scale was made in the actual scaling, which was changed from an 8 point Likert type scale to a 5 point Likert type scale based on feedback from focus groups in a previous study that also incorporated the same measure ().

Higher scores indicated that the person was an identified fan of the team for which he or she was rooting. We averaged the seven items (the questions that were part of the survey are provided as supplementary material) to form our team identity variable. Further, individuals who reported pre-existing medical conditions, claustrophobia, or ferrous metals in their body were excluded. Two groups were formed based upon participants' self-disclosure as a North American football fan, at both the national and college level.

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Participants were grouped as Fans ( N = 7) or Non-Fans ( N = 8) based on their response in the Team Identity Scale (), using a cutoff score of 4.5, when all item responses were averaged. Stimulus development Stimuli related to general violence were selected from the International Affective Picture System [IAPS; ()], a library of normative emotional images for experimental investigations of emotion and attention. Images in the IAPS library are rated across three emotive measures: pleasure (pleasant to unpleasant), arousal (calm to excited), and dominance (controlled to in-control). Football-related images were chosen using three pilot focus group sessions composed of members who self-reported their status as both fans and non-fans of American football ( N = 44; 21 Fans and 23 Non-Fans). These focus groups independently rated a subset of IAPS images' pleasure ( M = 7.6, SD = 1.3), arousal ( M = 7.5, SD = 2.1), and dominance ratings ( M = 7.1, SD = 2.0).

These mean ratings fell within 0.5 points of the original Lang et al. () normative ratings, suggesting that the groups' ratings were reliable. These focus groups then rated 32 football-related images using the same measures and methods to record pleasure ( M = 6.1, SD = 1.9), arousal ( M = 5.8, SD = 2.2), and dominance ( M = 5.8, SD = 1.7). The three focus groups did not rate the two image types (general violence and football violence) differently, as confirmed by the lack of an interaction between focus groups and image type in an omnibus three-way ANOVA ( F (2, 88) = 0.95, p = 0.39). In addition, fans and non-fans also did not rate the stimuli differently across the three focus groups, as confirmed by the lack of an interaction between focus groups and fan identity in an omnibus three-way ANOVA ( F (2, 88) = 0.94, p = 0.39). The interaction between all three factors (fan type, image type and focus group) was also non-significant for the ratings (3-way ANOVA, F (2, 88) = 0.24, p = 0.78).